THAMM Nicolle Disc Paper Final Draft 02072021 Cleared.docx

Figure 13: Number of new residence permits issued by type in EU 27 countries, 2009-2019 (by reason) - (Source: Eurostat, 2021)

the process of rebordering, which has been at the center of EU internal politics for decades, is now at the heart of the issues, as Europe exports its borders - to North Africa, but also to sub-Saharan Africa, Turkey and Central Asia: ‘rebordering pressures result from widening boundary gaps at the EU’s external borders, exogenous shocks to cross-border transactions, growing community deficits of debordering, and their politicization.’ 56 In this context, it is not only interesting but also necessary to observe the dynamics of labour migration from North African countries to Europe. Recent trends show a real need for skilled and low-skilled labour in EU countries. This strong demand, in the context of an aging population in many European countries and a lack of low-skilled workers for certain tasks in construction or agriculture in particular, indicates the contours of an economically advantageous mobility for all actors, respectful of the rights and protection of migrants. In this regard, it should be noted that the overall number of residence permits has continuously and globally increased over the decade 2009-2019, two main reasons have driven this growth: employment and associated family reunification. In particular, on a global scale, we notice that work-related residence permits have increased by 170% between 2014 and 2019. Going back to the ILO-ICLS definition of labour migration – which also includes ‘international students’ – it can be concluded that the total number of new residence permits issued to international migrants in 2019 for the 27 EU countries was 1.6 million (1.2+0.4), compared to only half in 2009 (0.55+0.25). However, if we disaggregate these data by country of origin, we can see that the increase is mainly due to Syria (+0.8 million over the period), Ukraine (+0.4 million) and India and China (both with +0.1 million), i.e. 85% of the total; on the other hand, the number of new residence permits granted to North African countries is stable with a very slight increase (+0.08 million).

If we the ranking of residence permits granted by European Union countries between 2014 and 2019 (in volume of valid, renewed and new permits), Morocco comes out on top with almost 2 million active permits. Algeria also makes the list with more than 0.7 million active permits over the same period. In relation to its population, Tunisia also has a proportionally comparable number of residence permits. This quick overview confirms the important role of North African workers in the European economy. The next section will seek to better qualify – in terms of skills, gender, and age in particular – the contours of this migration that contributes so significantly to the economic and social development of Europe, and in particular of France, Italy, Spain, and Germany. Most of the current employment schemes in the EU target migrant workers within specific sectors, such as IT, construction, tourism or agriculture. Some of these sectors have been negatively affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, resulting in severe job losses (UNCTAD 2020). One essential sector strongly impacted by the crisis is agriculture. In the EU, agriculture is a main source of employment and income for less than 4% of the population, and this rate is falling. This is partly due to the arduous nature of agricultural occupations and the fact that they generate less income than other activities. The 3) Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, M. (2021). Re-bordering Europe? Collective Action Barriers to 'Fortress Europe'. Journal of European Public Policy. 4) Lutz, P., & Karstens, F. (2021). External borders and internal freedoms: How the refugee crisis shaped the bordering preferences of European citizens. Journal of European Public Policy. Seasonal labour migration from North Africa to EU countries: a case study

56 See in particular: 1) Vicente Rufí, J., Richard, Y., Feliu, J. and Berzi, M. « Editorial: Peripheral borders, soft and hard re-bordering in Europe », Belgeo. 2) Bélanger, M., & Schimmelfennig, F. (2021). Politicization and Rebordering in EU Enlargement: Membership Discourses in European Parliaments. Journal of European Public Policy.

PAGE 19